A subtracted cDNA library enriched in immune-inducible genes from S. mediterranea and H. vulgaris, respectively, was constructed by using the SSH method. A total of each 288 clones were randomly picked and subjected to colony PCR. Plasmids of bacterial colonies that have been screened positively in blot hybridization indicating induced expression of corresponding genes were isolated and sequenced. Here, we describe the identification of 27 septic wounding-inducible genes in S. mediterranea (Table 1) and 35 septic wounding-inducible genes in H. vulgaris (Table 2) potentially involved in antimicrobial defense, signaling, and other immunity-linked cellular processes (Fig. 2).

In animals, hereditable receptors including the prominent Toll-receptors recognize damage- or pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules and engage multiple immune-related signaling pathways 27. Here, we identified a Schmidtea cDNA encoding a protein that exhibits highest sequence similarities to p21/Cdc42/Rac1-activated kinase 1 from Apis. In mammals, this kinase is believed to act directly on the JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase pathway 28. JNK is a prominent stress kinase that has been studied mostly in the context of cellular stress and apoptotic cell death following, for example, heat shock, DNA damage, and inflammation 29.

Calcium signals in human immune cells participate in the regulation of cell differentiation and influence lymphocyte motility, immunological synapse formation, degranulation and phagocytosis 30. In agreement, we found several predicted proteins in Schmidtea and Hydra that show similarities to members of the calcium signaling pathways suggesting that calcium pathways may be important in immune responses in these animals. One Schmidtea protein with highest similarities to ferlin family proteins that are known to be associated with both plasma and nuclear membranes contains a C2 domain that may play a role in calcium-mediated membrane fusion events during membrane regeneration and repair 31. Additionally, we identified a Schmidtea cDNA that encodes a potential calcipressin homologue. Vertebrate calcipressins modulate the pattern of calcineurin-dependent transcription, and may influence calcineurin activity beyond calcium to integrate a broad array of signals into the cellular response 32. The importance of calcineurin in immunity is highlighted by the use of calcineurin inhibitors such as cyclosporine as prominent immunosuppressive drugs in humans 33. Furthermore, we found a potential Schmidtea phospholipase C that may generate inositol triphosphate and diacylglycerol by hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol which in turn leads to raising the level of intracellular calcium. In Hydra, we determined the induced expression of a potential diacylglycerol kinase that balances between two signaling lipids, diacylglycerol and phosphatidic acid, by phosphorylating the former one. Therefore, diacylglycerol kinases may be involved in numerous lipid and calcium signaling pathways on transient or continuous demands, respectively 34.

In line with these findings, we identified a Schmidtea calreticulin homologue which is evolutionarily conserved (Fig. 3). Although originally characterized as a regulator of calcium homeostasis, more recently it has been shown to be present on the surface of many mammalian cell types and has been implicated in signal transduction events associated with innate immunity, cell adhesion, angiogenesis, and apoptosis 35. In regard to its immune functions, cell surface levels of calreticulin directly correlate with the ability of human dentritic cells and polymorphonuclear phagocytes to mediate phagocytosis, and the capacity of normal and tumor cells to adhere to components of the extracellular matrix 35. Furthermore, calreticulin has recently been demonstrated to play a crucial role in the loading of MHC class I molecules with optimal peptide cargo in mammals 36. This is a clear example of ancient mechanisms co-opted by new ones such as the acquired immunity of vertebrates in the context of the evolution of the immune system. However, calreticulin is also a prominent stress-inducible molecular chaperone in the endoplasmatic reticulum. This is in agreement to our further identification of stress-related proteins, including a potential Hsp20/α-crystallin protein and a RAD50 DNA repair protein from Schmidtea and a PRP19/PSO4 DNA repair protein and a scythe protein (also known as Bat3) in Hydra. The latter one is an important regulator of the apoptogenic mitochondrial intermembrane protein AIF (Apoptosis-Inducing Factor) in mammals 37 and may have similar functions in Hydra.

In this study we describe for the first time a platyhelminth protein with a relationship to the mammalian perforin, the macrophage-expressed protein, (Fig. 4) that probably functions in the Schmidtea innate immune system. Similar proteins have also been identified in porifera and cnidaria 3839 suggesting that perforins are evolutionarily conserved defense molecules. That also applies for an identified Hydra PR-1 (pathogenesis-related proteins-1) protein that shares sequence similarities with immune-inducible plant PR-1 proteins. The PR-1 family is strongly conserved in plants, fungi, insects, and vertebrates, including humans, and some recent studies suggest a role as signaling or effector molecule in antifungal defense reactions in plants 40.

Generation of reactive oxygen species by phagocytes is an essential mechanism of mammalian host defense against microbial infections. Several protein kinase C isoforms have been found to phosphorylate p47phox (neutrophil cytosolic factor 1), resulting in its membrane translocation and activation of the NADPH oxidase 41. Here, we identified a Hydra protein with highest similarities to p47phox from other animals suggesting that generation of reactive oxygen species may also be important for antimicrobial defense in Cnidaria. In addition, we determined several short open reading frames in Schmidtea and Hydra that may encode potential antimicrobial peptides or signaling molecules. For example, one identified cDNA encodes a putative antimicrobial peptide that is cationic with potential α-helical structure. It shows significant similarities to antimicrobial esculentin-1B from the frog Rana esculenta (Fig. 5). This is in agreement with our observations that H. vulgaris homogenates display inducible antimicrobial activities as determined by the inhibition zone assay against live Micrococcus luteus bacteria (data not shown).

Interestingly, one immune-inducible transcript from Hydra exhibits significant sequence similarities to major vault proteins from other organisms. Very recently, major vault protein were found to be rapidly recruited to lipid rafts when human lung epithelial cells are infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Major vault protein has been demonstrated to be essential for optimal epithelial cell internalization and clearance of P. aeruginosa indicating that it makes a substantial contribution to epithelial cell-mediated resistance to infection in mammals 42 and probably also in Cnidaria. However, the group of Thomas C.G. Bosch has recently described that in Hydra, similar as in humans, the immune system maintains a substantial resident beneficial microbiota on their epithelia 43. This suggests that Hydra is able to discriminate 'friend' from 'foe' by killing entities that do damage and let those live that are commensals or mutualists which is in agreement to Poly Matzingers' proposed danger model of mammalian immunity 44 and our recent findings from insects that endogenous alarm signals induce innate immune responses during infection 4546.

We identified several Schmidtea and Hydra proteins potentially involved in cellular homeostasis such as ribosomal proteins, myosin, actin, tubulin and metabolic proteins including Schmidtea isoprenoid biosynthesis enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase (HMG-CoA reductase) and Hydra glycolytic enzyme enolase. This may reflect the need of an increased cellular metabolism during tissue regeneration. In addition, we determined a Hydra dickkopf-like protein that is potentially involved as an antagonist in Wnt signaling 47. Confirming our result, a recent study demonstrated that the Hydra dickkopf-like protein expression is stimulated by the injury signal itself 48. In vertebrates, wound healing and formation of a specialized wound epidermis require Wnt/β-catenin signaling and, additionally, the action of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) 49. In line with this, we identified a septic-injury inducible MMP homologue in Schmidtea that is evolutionarily conserved (Fig. 6). In Hydra, MMPs were shown to be required in extracellular matrix degradation and epithelial morphogenesis 5051. Members of this evolutionarily conserved family of enzymes play well-established multifaceted roles in tissue remodeling due to their capacity to degrade the extracellular matrix 52 and have recently been recognized as important modulators of immunity both in mammals 53 and in insects 54.

In addition, we found a Hydra protein with highest similarities to vWF (von Willebrand factor) proteins from other animals. This vWF protein is crucial for vertebrate blood clotting by binding to platelet receptors and collagens 55 and, in Hydra, may be important for cell-cell or cell-basement membrane adhesion processes.

Finally, we performed quantitative real time RT-PCR analyses using RNAs from untreated and immune challenged Schmidtea to precisely determine expression levels of several selected immune-inducible genes that were identified in the present study. This analysis confirmed the statictically significant induced expression of HMG-Co-A reductase, calreticulin, Hsp20, MMP, and perforin in response to septic injury (Fig. 7). The mRNA levels of tubulin and actin genes were elevated upon wounding but without statistically support due to higher variations of results from different determinations.

The asexual strain of S. mediterranea (originated from a fountain in Montjuïc, Barcelona, Spain) was kept at 18°C in darkness and fed once per week with sheep liver. One-week-starved about 7-mm-long animals were used for experiments. H. vulgaris (Zürich strain, originally isolated by P. Tardent) was cultured at 18°C as described 59. Septic wounding was performed by dissecting animals in two parts using a scalpel in the presence of 50 μg/ml LPS (purified Escherichia coli endotoxin 0111:B4, Cat. No.: L2630, Sigma, Taufkirchen, Germany). Total RNA was extracted from 14 h post immune challenged animals using the TriReagent isolation reagent (Molecular Research Centre, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. RNA integrity was confirmed by ethidium bromide gel staining and quantities were determined spectrophotometrically.

In order to identify genes that are differentially expressed in response to septic injury we performed the suppression subtractive hybridization method using RNAs from immune challenged and untreated S. mediterranea and H. vulgaris, respectively, the SMART PCR cDNA synthesis Kit (Clontech, Mountain View, CA, USA), and the PCR-Select cDNA subtraction Kit (Clontech), according to the protocols of the manufacturer. Colony PCR of each 288 randomly picked colonies and blot hybridization have been performed similar as described recently 19.

Plasmid isolation of positively screened colonies was performed with the FastPlasmid Mini Kit (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany) and purified plasmids were custom sequenced by Macrogen Inc. (Seoul, South-Korea). Blast 60 was used to identify corresponding gene sequences in the public sequence databases. InterProScan 61 was used for an integrated search in PROSITE, Pfam, and PRINTS databases at EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute and to predict signal sequences and transmembrane regions.

Multiple sequence alignments were computed using blosum62 program 62. For phylogenetic reconstruction, we used the software package MrBayes 3.1.2 63 which combines Bayesian inference and Markov chain Monte Carlo convergence acceleration techniques known as Metropolis coupling. The best fixed-rate model of amino acid evolution was determined by model jumping among nine possible models. The model with the overall highest posterior probability was WAG model 64 for the MMPs after 10⁶ generations and for calreticulins after 2 × 10⁶ generations. We used convergence diagnostic (i.e., the standard deviation of split frequencies) to determine whether the run length is sufficient. The average standard deviation of split frequencies was 0.0051 for MMPs and 0.0023 for the calreticulins. This indicated that the two chains that were run converged on similar results in all cases. The 50% majority rule tree presented here was constructed from all sampled trees with the first 25% of all trees ignored as burn in. Posterior probabilities plotted at the nodes can be interpreted as the probability that the tree or clade is correct 65.

Quantitative real time RT-PCR was performed with the real-time PCR system Mx3000P (Stratagene, La Jolla, California, USA) using the FullVelocity SYBR^® Green QRT-PCR Master Mix (Stratagene), according to the protocols of the manufacturer. 50 pg of RNA per reaction were used to amplify 18S rRNA and 50 ng of RNA per reaction to amplify selected Schmidtea-genes using appropriate primers (Table 3). Primers were selected using the primer3 software 66 and were purchased from Thermo electron (Waltham, MA, USA).